Blog Assignment

Friday, April 26, 2019

Week 14: Sri Lanka timeline: How eight explosions wrought devastation on Easter Sunday



Sri Lanka timeline: How eight explosions wrought devastation on Easter Sunday



Link to Original Article






Summary:
    On Easter Sunday in Sri Lanka, a catastrophe occurred. From about 8:45 to 9:30 am on Easter Sunday, bombers from luxury hotels and Christian Churches rigged and detonated explosives. Then at about five hours later, two more bombs went off near Colombo, the capital of Sri Lanka, one in a cheap and inexpensive hotel and the other in a residential area. About 300 people are reported dead and over 500 people are reported injured in the attacks.


The aftermath of one of the bombings

One bombing site was inside St. Anthony's Shrine which is a popular tourist location/landmark and has the largest Roman Catholic Congression in Sri Lanka's capital. According to witnesses, the bomb went off at around 9:00 am and was "So violent that nearby buildings shook,". Then 25 miles north in Negombo, a Catholic-majority town, another explosion was reported. The explosion in Negombo killed about 100 people and injured just as many. Then at just about 10 am the Associated Press reported the first two explosions but then reported that St. Anthony's and St. Sebastian had been attacked and that the explosions rocked three Colombo hotels and a Church on Sri Lanka's east coast.


Outside St. Anthony's Shrine

Reaction:
   In my opinion, this catastrophe that has taken place in Sri Lanka this weekend could be a serious attack directed towards Christianity. I believe this is a possibility because the major attacks were at churches and shrines on a holy day, Easter, for Christians which was the day Jesus Christ was resurrected. Sri Lanka may suffer from this attack in many different ways for example rebuilding will cost money and resources but also it will affect people's minds because this event to occur on Easter at holy and religious hot spots and furthermore all the deaths that have occurred as well. This may be the attacker's purpose and with Sri Lanka having a lower-income with a GDP  per capita of 4,073 USD they may be targeting Sri Lanka as a whole or only religion. 

Connection:
   This article's topic connects to our current unit because of the attacks whoever the attacks were caused by maybe because they want a change just like South Africa and apartheid but, instead of starting off peacefully, like in South Africa, they started with terror attacks to weaken the mindsets of the people so they can easily fight for their cause whatever it may be. 

Questions:
1. Who do you think is really behind these Bombings and what motives do you think they have?

2. Do you think this was for religious affairs or do you believe there was something else that would drive a group of people to cause such a disaster?

3. What do you think the government plans  to do first after this tragic catastrophe?

   

30 comments:

  1. I also believe these attacks were targeted towards Christianity, as the suicide bombers struck three Catholic Churches and hotels in cities across the Sri Lanka. They also attacked on Easter Sunday, the holiest day of the Christian calendar. Sri Lankan authorities say the attackers were affiliated with a local terror group. The attackers were radical Muslims. About 7% of the Sri Lankan population are Christian, while the rest are primarily Muslim. There may be some sort of bias in the government against christians. According to Sri Lankan officials, “the initial investigation has revealed that this was in retaliation for the New Zealand mosque attack.” The 9 suicide bombers were also from mostly educated middle-class backgrounds. The authorities were continuing to investigate whether the Islamic State, which on Tuesday claimed responsibility for the coordinated blasts, had provided more than symbolic support, such as by training the attackers or building the bombs. Similar to the New Zealand shooting, there was some kind of notification that was sent to the Sri Lankan Officials, but no one responded. According to the New York Times, “an Indian security official, who spoke on the condition of anonymity, said India had interrogated a man last year who was linked with ISIS, and who said he was inspired by Mr. Zaharan’s videos on social media. That intelligence prompted an investigation into Mr. Zaharan, and it was part of the context for an April 11 warning that the Indians sent to the Sri Lankan authorities about the possibility of church bombings.” The warning was never relayed to church officials, and the Sri Lankan authorities apparently took no action against members of Mr. Zaharan’s group, despite specific information provided by the Indians.
    The government should pay attention to all intelligence provided to them, as anything can provide a lead for them. Tightening security now may not have any particular effect now, but it is imperative that they care for and compensate those who have lost their lives. The government needs to monitor the activities of suspicious activity.

    https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/24/world/asia/sri-lanka-bombings.html
    https://www.npr.org/2019/04/24/716664302/bombers-who-carried-out-attacks-in-sri-lanka-were-well-educated-minister-says
    https://townhall.com/tipsheet/leahbarkoukis/2019/04/23/sri-lankan-state-minister-reveals-motive-behind-easter-bombings-n2545201

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  2. It is definitely extremists behind the bombings. People with an intense hatred for christians. For motivation, I have heard that it was a response to the New Zealand Mosque attack. I think this is horrible, because these extremists are creating a war between religion. They are also drawing in truly innocent civilians to this conflict that should not be happening. I do think it is a religious affair. According to CNN Sri Lanka has had many terrorist attacks before, but this is the first one to target churches. Along with it being on Easter day, there is no doubt that it is a religious affair. I hope that after this tragedy the government starts an investigation to see who was behind the attack, and also add more security in the country.

    https://www.cnn.com/2019/04/21/opinions/sri-lanka-attacks-mystery-bergen/index.html

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  3. Sri Lanka is split between the Tamil and Sinhalese ethnicities. The Tamil ethnicity is mainly in the northern part of the country. They are majority Hindu while the Sinhalese are mainly Buddhist. Both the Christians and Muslims are minorities. The Christians are most highly present on the western coast while the Muslims are mostly on the eastern coast. There has long been religious tensions between the many groups in Sri Lanka. Great Britain colonized Sri Lanka, which was then called Ceylon, from 1815 to 1948. While in power, Great Britain generally promoted the Tamil to leadership positions which upset the Sinhalese majority. Right after Great Britain relinquished the island the Sinhalese retaliated. They passed harsh policies against the Tamil population favored by the British. Starting in 1983, fighting broke out as a Tamil group caused riots in Colombo. Amidst Indian interventions and three wars for a Tamil state in the north, the conflict ended in 2009. After this 25 year civil war, the attacks did not stop. In 2018, Sri Lanka declared a state of emergency after a mob attacked Muslim suburbs. At this point, the stage was set for violence to break out again. Seven of the eight explosions took place at Colombo and Negombo on the western coast. The eighth was at a church on the eastern coast in Batticaloa. The attacks are widely believed to be religiously motivated considering they took place at tourist destinations and churches on Easter Sunday. While the Islamic State has claimed responsibility, the only guarantee is that the National Thoweed Jamath are involved. A new wrinkle is that most of the bombers were upper class and highly educated. On the question of motive, I strongly believe the attacks were religiously motivated. The Sri Lankan government needs to take action.
    Just as I was about to post there have been new developments. The authorities raided a house where bombers were believed to be hiding. As the team closed in, occupants detonated bombers killing 15. After the bombings a man reported the house because it was twice the size of others on the street. He approached people living in the house and asked for identification, but none was given out. The day before, a different house was raided. Inside, there were IS flags, suicide kits, and more explosives. This is part of a plan announced by the president to search every house for evidence. The government is making retaliation a priority. It is important to deter future attacks. I believe that the policy is good. However, Sri Lanka recently banned all head coverings that conceal identity. If Sri Lanka goes further they could infringe on people’s freedoms. Ultimately, Sri Lanka is taking effective action to stop future attacks and punish past ones.

    https://docs.google.com/document/d/1205l8IBEg-eeJ0zuIEXT0dXltjEtksbOqyWEcHN6CWo/edit?usp=sharing

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  4. I strongly believe and think it is kind of obvious that the attacks were motivated by a hate of Christianity. It is not merely coincidence that the attackers, whoever they are, decided to attack a Christian place of worship on a widely celebrated Christian holiday when many Christians were gathered there. it is agreed that the mastermind of these bombings was Zahran Hashim, a person who believed in radical Islam and pledged allegiance to ISIS. ISIS has since taken responsibility for the attacks, further proving how they were religiously motivated. I think that the only way we can stop these in the future is to become more kind and loving towards others. With three very recent terror attacks on areas of worship (New Zealand, Sri Lanka, San Diego), it is a sign that we need to be forgiving and not lash out on others the way they may have harmed us. Just because they do something to you does not mean that you should do the same thing back to them. Although that may feel good temporarily, it doesn't solve the problem and makes it worse.
    Sources:
    https://heavy.com/news/2019/04/zahran-hashim/
    https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48085525
    https://www.cnn.com/2019/04/29/asia/sri-lanka-face-coverings-ban/index.html

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  5. I think the people who were behind these bombings are people who dislike Christianity. The reason why they bombed the churches was because they were Catholic churches that are pretty famous in Sri Lanka. It also can not be a coincidence that the bombers decided to bomb these Christian churches on Easter (since Easter is a Christian holiday). There could be many reasons why the attackers decided to bomb the churches but I strongly believe that the main reason was directed toward religion. The New York times wrote that a Danish family was visiting Sri Lanka for spring break. Sadly the family was in Sri Lanka during the attack and three of the children died. The children were pretty young,however the mother and father did not die during the attack. I think the government will apologize to those that were injured and to those that lost a family member in the attack. I hope the government will do something about the attack so this will not happen again.

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  6. The fact that the bombing was at a church and on Easter sunday goes to prove that the bombing wasn't random but targeting Christians. Attacks at places of worship were people go to pray for a better life, or thank god are devastating because they discourage citizens from expressing their beliefs and views. In my opinion finding who did these attacks would take a lot of effort and I think this effort should be put towards making sure attacks like these don't happen. As important as I believe that the people get the justice they deserve it isn't fair to anyone at risk in the future. Violence in public areas has been a devastating and reoccuring issue in the whole world for the past decade. Instead of making sure attacks like this don't happen again, or restricting gun control time often goes into popularizing the effect through social media. I think the government should also apologize to the families affected by the event who just wanted to offer their prayers to god on an auspicious day.

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  7. Other than the Christian churches, hotels were also the main target for these bombings. It is unclear why extremists would try to harm foreigners that have no involvement in any political or religious activities. One possible explanation is that all three hotels were luxurious, which might indicate that the customers are rich. The extremists might have deep hatred towards rich individuals, since they are jealous of high income groups exploiting poors. In addition, they might be against immigration or other heated topics related to foreign relations. However, the overwhelming motive is still religiously driven. The fact that the most suspected terrorist group in Sri Lanka is a domestic group that never pulled off such a large scaled attack show that they had outside helpers. (https://abcnews.go.com/International/sri-lanka-bombings-290-dead-hundreds-injured-church/story?id=62533965) The huge possibility of having outside help shows how this bombing does not only represent the terrorists inside Sri Lanka, but also international hatred against the targeted people. One major cause of all the bombing is the lack of efficient communication between government organizations. According to several sources, the police force received warnings on the bombing and reported it. However, the prime minister and other government officials choose to ignore the message or failed to pass down this important information. If the government cared more about the warning, less death would have occured. I think the government will first try to ensure the safety of all other citizens and make sure no additional bombing will happen. However, all citizens will be terrified after these events and the country will live under terror for a period of time. This event leads to international uneasiness, since Sri Lanka will suffer economically. The most important thing is to return the country back to its original state.

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  8. I believe that the attacks were not caused by larger organizations, as they would take responsibility for them, just as they have for many other attacks, such as several ISIS attacks in France. However, I do believe extremists coordinated the attacks to cause a greater public shock. The motive is most likely to instill fear in the public and to send the message that they are powerful. I believe these were religious attacks because they were aimed at attacking churches. Most likely, the attackers did not support Christianity, causing them to attack innocent Christians. The first thing I think the government is going to do is increase security throughout Sri Lanka. This includes investigations following the attacks to find out if there are any future attacks secretly being planned.

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  9. I think that these attacks were by terrorist groups or subgroups in the middle east. I think it is mainly a religious extreme motive because some middle eastern believe that in order to truly practice their religion, they must kill off other religions. This is seen in things such as extremist Islam. I think that, although this was a religious affair, it was more personal than religious because extremist ideas are usually unrepresentative of the true beliefs of a religion. I think that the government should focus on abolishing this kind of extremist representation in their country so that they can rebuild society from a more stable foundation

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  10. I believe that the people behind these bombings were extremist who have a hatred or prejudice against Christians. By choosing to attack on Easter Sunday and only in places where majority was Christians proves that this is not just a coincidence. The fact that they choose to attack these places proves that they were carefully chosen and not just randomly done. There could be other motives that influenced them to attack these places but due to the facts, it it mostly likely because of religion. Also the bombers have some hatred or prejudice against foreigner as we look at the location of the bombings, there are four attacks at hotels or inns. So either they have the assumption that majority of the foreigners that come to Sri Lanka are Christian, which would point to them only having one motive for doing this or that they have hate/prejudice against foreigners too. But is still mainly driven towards religion. I do not think that there is really is something else that could drive a group of people to decide to do this. The main thing that the government can do is to up their security a lot and make sure that they can prevent this from happening again.

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    Replies
    1. I agree with you. This is the same idea/concept I was thinking while I was writing this blog post.

      Delete
  11. I think that the people behind these bombings have to be extremists. It is no coincidence that it took place on Easter Sunday, a holy religious holiday, at several Christian churches. The article goes on to state that, “[it turned] Christianity’s most joyous day to one of mass carnage.” To add on to my inference about their religious motive, these bombings took place in Sri Lanka, where Christianity is a minority (https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2019/04/30/sri-lankan-christians-like-me-easter-attacks-revived-old-ghosts/?utm_term=.402dfe1fba84). I think the government might try to ensure and provide more safety and assurance towards bombings. And because this tragedy was clearly religiously driven, I think the government will try to put an end to these extremist acts.

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  12. I believe that this attack was a religious attack. I myself am a christian and seeing this tragedy especially being on Easter did put me in a bad mood. The people who did this attack probably did it to try and put fear in Christians and try to enforce dominance. In order to stop attacks like these in the future the government should moderate things that happen during religious events. This would help stop any extremists of any religion from attempting to make an attack on the religion that is celebrating an important event such as Easter. Maybe then the government could have avoided this terrible event from happening.

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  13. Like others seemed to have concluded, those behind the bombings are extremists that foster some hatred of Christianity. Only people so deep seated into their distorted mentality would go so far as to act as suicide bombers, throwing away their own life, just for their own ideals. The hatred on Christianity can be inferred from the locations as well as the clearly intentional activation of the operation on the date, Easter Sunday. I would believe that this is purely religious affairs and no other cause could drive one to act as a bomb for themselves. Again, the date is 100% not merely a coincidence and the entire thing was fully planned and “well” coordinated. After this catastrophe, I guess it seems imminent that a curfew is established long term to reduce risk of civilians getting injured. This would happen alongside an extensive investigation I would hope as it appears these religious based attacks are becoming more common, hence California recently.

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  14. I agree with all of my classmates. I think that the bombings were definitely directed towards christianity and extremists were most likely behind the attacks. It is so sad that this type of hatred is so prevalent in today's world, especially because it was fueled purely on the judgement of another religion. Everyone should be free to express and practice their beliefs without living in fear. The Washington Post has actually identified 9 of the bombers and has confirmed that they are part of extremist groups. The attackers were all mostly foreign (they were not citizens of Sri Lanka). To me, this makes the situation even worse because these people came to Sri Lanka with the intent of killing all of these people. I hope that the government supports and helps all of those who were harmed and the families of those who were killed.
    Source:
    https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/sri-lanka-identifies-9-easter-sunday-suicide-bombers/2019/05/01/d55ac2f0-6c1a-11e9-bbe7-1c798fb80536_story.html?utm_term=.3c21392ebd74

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  15. Along with what my classmates have said, I too, believe the attacks were affiliated with Christianity, and the attackers' hate towards it. While I could definitely go in to depth as to why I think this, I feel I would just be echoing my classmates. Instead, I want to put out another point of view. The bombers could have chosen this day and these areas because of their hatred of religion in GENERAL. This COULD just be the start of many more bombings. Though the evidence makes it pretty clear it is probably because of hatred of Christianity, it is always important to think of all the possibilities first, before making up one's mind. In response to this situation, I believe the government will tell citizens to stay at home for the time being from any religiously-affiliated areas. I don't think they will take any physical action to really put this into full effect, but I definitely expect them to strongly encourage it.

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  16. Since then, there has been updates regarding to the identification of the bombers. Sri Lankan government has been able to identify 9 of the bombers who were involved in the Easter Sunday bombings. Little is publicly known, however, about their exact motives for these devastating actions taken on Easter. According to Washington Post, however, some of the identified bombers are known to have joined a plot which was rooted from a local extremist group. In fact, all 9 bombers are said to be linked to extremist groups. I think that the bombings were based on religion. This really upsets me because everyone should have the freedom to practice their beliefs without fear. India had actually warned Sri Lanka of possible attempts such as this one before the fact. However, due to Sri Lankan politics, this important warning from Indian Intelligence was overlooked, which had horrible results. I am glad that now, the Sri Lankan government is fixing this error by making a lot of effort to prevent an instance such as these bombings again.

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    Replies
    1. https://www.wsj.com/articles/sri-lanka-identifies-all-9-easter-bombers-11556745074

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  17. Given that the bombings were on Easter, and most of them took place at Christian churches, it is safe to assume that the attacks had to do with religious affairs. It could be possible that something, like a run in with a specific person, or a mental illness which could have catalyzed the attack. According to a study of 235 mass homicides, referenced by the New York Times, 22% we’re committed by people who could be considered mentally ill. (https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.nytimes.com/2018/02/16/us/politics/fact-check-parkland-gun-violence-mental-illness.amp.html)
    Now, the government will probably be upping security and government presence in public spaces, especially tourist locations and churches. Additionally, they will most likely be looking into how and why the bombings took place, to try and find solitude for mourning families and to better understand how to protect the country next time.
    -Kayla Shiao

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  18. These egregious acts of terrorism act not only to scare the world, but to turn groups of people against one another. The terrorists who carried out this act hope that the fear among the Christian community in Sri Lanka will cause them to turn on other groups within the nation or outside the nation who they feel are responsible. This sort of provocation will only cause more chaos and draw in more people. While some believe the bombers to be acting independently, if a larger terrorist organization was behind this, then the Sri Lankan government must make evident moves to apprehend these criminals. Doing so will ease the unrest among the Sri Lankan Christians and of the international community. The Sri Lankan government needs to unite its country in dire times such as now, to show that they will not be so easily rattled by terrorists.

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  19. This comment has been removed by the author.

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  20. I think the bombings and attacks were about religion. I agree that it had something to do about Christianity because churches were destroyed on Easter, a popular holiday for Christians. I think that the bombers hatred for this religion drove them to bomb many places in Sri Lanka. It is very devastating to hear about these random bombings that are happening because it shows you that you are never safe. These bombers clearly wanted to send a clear message to everyone by making a big mess on a Christian holiday. The government should be more cautious so that they can prevent any bombings from happening later on.

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  21. I believe that the people behind the bombings are part of a religion or group against Christianity, or extremists that feel hatred towards Christianity. Their motive was probably to create fear among the minority of Christians in Sri Lanka and to feel lower and less powerful. These people may now fear their own religion which is entirely unfair when they were peacefully celebrating a holiday. People should have the rights and freedom to feel safe and the government should help these civilians feel safe. I believe the government should help provide aid to the families in need and give them the ability to feel safe in their homes, daily life, and religious gatherings.

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  22. I believe that ISIS is trying to expand their influence around. CNN talked about police suspecting an extremist group that is in the area yet ISIS talks responsibility for the bombings. It appears that ISIS is allying with other groups possibility for extra support but I think mainly to use other groups as pawns to enforce strong influence in those areas. It seems quite obvious as the attacks occurred on Easter, a common time for Christians to attend churches for Easter mass. It was definitely for religious purposes. By attacking the church the bombers were making a statement that they believed that the church is wrong, being christian is wrong etc. This act being carried out shows the hatred towards the church and the meaning of the church that people were willing to go as far as attack clearly shows its religious motives. I know that CNN talks about the plans that havce already been issued in light of this event. One of which is banning anything that covers the face. Apparently hiding ones face is a threat to national security of Sri Lanka and has been banned ever since the bombing. I believe there also have been other efforts, mainly to do with sources that believe there could be another strike, this time targeting government Ministers.

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  23. With 70.2% of Sri Lankans being Theravada Buddhists, leaving Christians, Hindus and Muslims as small minorities, Sri Lanka is bound to have religious tensions. According to Amarnath Amarasingam, a senior research fellow at the Institute for Strategic Dialogue who studies extremism in Sri Lanka (newyorker.com) "As far as I know, there was no real conflict between the Muslims and the Christians. Particularly in the east, they lived quite happily. The Tamil communities, the Christian communities, the Muslim community—it is a very diverse area. And I would say the same thing about Colombo [Sri Lanka’s capital]. There was no real conflict like that. It is partly the targeting of the Christian population that makes me think it is not just a local-born and -bred Muslim organization that planned and carried out this operation. The targeting of churches, Christian communities, during Easter has a very international-jihadist component to it, even though it hasn’t really been proved and none of these organizations have claimed it yet." I feel this background from Amarasingam is important in weeding out suspicions and other false accusations, that most likely prompted the Sri Lankan government to shut down social media platforms. The details of this tragedy that occurred on Easter, should not be falsely spread, ultimately raising fear of these terrorist groups that may be linked to the attack. Additionally from Aljerzeera, "[The attackers] 'Most of them have been arrested. Some have died,' he said. 'Now we are able to return to normality. We should all now help restore the normal life of the community.' " Hopefully no further attacks of this manner occur in Sri Lanka, or anywhere else for that matter. The Sri Lankan government is also working to create policy and laws to deal with "extremists", which I believe is useful and much needed.

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  24. I would have to say that I do believe that these bombings were aimed at Christianity as a whole. While it is true that not all the bombs were placed in church's, the fact that these attacks took place on Easter Sunday and hit multiple church's. This seems to be a very big indicator towards a possible motive for this attack and who carried out the attack. I feel that this attack was an attack on Christianity but not completely. It seems to me that while these people did target church's, they had a very specific goal in mind and that was to cause havoc and death. This is a devastating event no matter the reason behind it and is a very scary thing for us to possibly having to come to terms with a possible war on Christianity. Personally I have no idea which direction the government will go in trying to deal with this attack. While I am unsure, it seems to me that the attackers have not been caught or identified so I believe that this is the right first step for the government to take. Focus on dealing with this attack and everything that came with it before you start thinking about future attacks.

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  25. I strongly believe that this was a direct attack on Christianity, conducted with hatred towards the religion and a desire to wipe it from Sri Lanka. A very few amount of the population is Christian, and as mentioned several times by others, they targeted Christian churches and hotels across Sri Lanka. Extremists spread fear through certain ethnic or religious groups to gain control or to wipe out these segments of society. By not only striking churches throughout Sri Lanka, but also attacking on Easter Sunday, the holiest day of the year for Christians, they are certainly trying to spread fear through their actions. I definitely think the government should take action against the extremists and potential threats to any religious group, especially Christianity in this time. According to the New York Times, "the government has blamed the group National Thowheeth Jama'ath for the attacks..." this group is a little known group said to have splintered off from the Sri Lanka Thowheed Jamath. They are a strictly Muslim extremist group, which is why I believe the attacks were solely based on terrorizing Christians. The government is currently putting new restrictions and strict policies to stop extremist groups which will hopefully have a strong positive impact on the amount of attacks. Because Christians make up such a small percent of society, it is easier to have a negative impact on them and spread terror through them. With government's new steps towards better protection, there will definitely be a change in the extremist acts.

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  26. Whether these bombings were religiously motivated or not, which they seem to be indeed, I think it's first disgusting to note that people even choose to act in these ways in the first place. There's a strong and clear link between the timing of the event(s) and the primary targets of the event(s). It's unfair today that our world must be ravaged by horrific acts of terrorism and disrespect to others. I feel that although there's been research as to who indeed committed or may be responsible for these attacks I will abstain from passing judgement upon who may have caused these events to unfold. I would say this because although it is important to know who is responsible for whatever act, it is also important to understand the importance in the fact that human beings on this planet and in our society commit acts like these and consider performing these acts. And thanks to that, the importance of who is responsible for this insult and huge disrespect to Christianity can be lost because the act is simply what it is and the truth of it is self-evident.

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  27. This attack is similar to the one that happened in Mumbai in 2008. The attacks were seem to be coordinated in such a way that the max ammount of casualties would occur. Not just any casualties though since the bombers attacked luxury buildings this most likely was aimed at killing western tourist which would sadly have the most media coverage. In Sri Lanka there is a radical Islamist group called, the police were warned that this group was planning nationwide attacks targeting churches. Therefore, it most likely was that radical Islamist group.

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  28. I believe their motives are religious, just as the palestinian and israeli conflict was. Either that or they are a terrorist group seeking change through the use of extreme violence. The government will most likely try to search for the terrorists and give them sentences. To help the destruction, they would try to fix the broken infrastructure.

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